Luera & Otto (2005)

Luera G.R., & Otto, C.A. (2005). Development of an inquiry-based elementary science teacher education program reflecting current reform movements. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 16, 241-258.

Introduction
My research interests revolve around teacher education programs in institutes of higher education, special education teacher attrition as well as constructivist theory-to-practice models for teaching practice. This study was of interest because encompassed two of those three categories. Inquiry-based pedagogy has been touted by research to practice proponents in the field of elementary education for many years. Leura and Otto (2005) presented a compelling longitudinal study of one Midwestern university’s elementary science teacher education program. They discussed the practical application of the social constructivist theory of learning within the context of elementary science teacher education. The study was well grounded in inquiry-based learning theory, presented in a moderately thorough literature review. Additionally, Leura and Otto described the origins in the reform movement in science education as well as specific recommendations made by national and state stakeholders.

Problem
Content knowledge, students’ self-efficacy towards teaching science and reflective teaching behaviors made up the three-pronged definition of sound inquiry-based teaching practice called for by the National Science Education Standards. Using these three variables, Luera and Otto presented a purpose for the study of program reforms, explaining how the integration of inquiry-based teaching strategies could improve measurable student outcomes for pre-service science teachers. Specific reform recommendations made by National Science Education Standards, as well as federal and state policy guidelines led to the changes in the university’s program. The recommendations incorporated into the science teacher certificate program were (a) incorporation of social constructivist theory of learning throughout coursework (b) content instruction based on state and federal standards (c) infusion of cross-disciplinary themes (d) development reflective practice in pre-service teachers. Luera and Otto presented examples of the instructional changes from traditional lecture-laboratory pedagogy to inquiry-based approaches, how courses in the program were aligned to state and national benchmarks and the manner in which pre-service teachers efficacy in science instruction and content knowledge were measured. They grounded their study in well-established research literature citing specifically the justification for the use of constructivist learning theory in science curricula and how it impacts pre-service teachers development of fundamental understanding of science teaching. Their hypothesis being that as students took an increasing number of courses employing inquiry- based approaches, their content knowledge and self-efficacy outcomes would improve.


Methods
Luera and Otto gathered data was over a 4 year period using convenience sampling of pre-service elementary science teacher candidates enrolled in the university. The pre-service teachers’ content knowledge was measured using the Michigan Educational Assessment Program 11th Grade Model of Assessment of Science. Students’ efficacy in teaching science was measured using the Science Teaching Efficacy Behavior (STEBI). They defined the term efficacy as personal science teaching efficacy beliefs and science teaching outcome expectancy. For analysis, the data was divided into four specific groups: zero inquiry courses, one inquiry course, two inquiry courses and three inquiry courses. Additional information was collected from observation records on how courses at the university mirrored inquiry-based teaching models as the overall program changed over the course of the study. Luera and Otto chose ten variables to analyze within the inquiry-based content courses based on efficacy and science content knowledge. They included overall knowledge, life science knowledge, physical science knowledge, earth-space knowledge, constructing knowledge, reasoning, text analysis, overall efficacy, personal science teaching efficacy and science teaching outcome expectancy.

Results
Luera and Otto presented an analysis focused on efficacy and content knowledge. These were displayed in tabular form with each variable and the results of the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The authors found differences between those who took zero, one or two inquiry-based courses in content knowledge. A least squared difference (LSD)t-test with an alpha value of .05 showed that students who had completed two courses scored significantly higher in overall content knowledge than those who completed zero or one course. There was no significant difference between two and three courses. The data suggested that two inquiry courses were most advantageous if impact of inquiry-based courses is measured by content knowledge. Analysis of the results of efficacy based on the Science Teaching Efficacy Behavior Instrument showed a significant difference (p < .05) for the overall STEBI score as on the pre-service teacher efficacy beliefs subscore (p < .01). Teacher outcome expectancy did not change based on the number of inquiry based courses taken. Students who took two or three courses had higher overall efficacy than those who took zero or one course. The authors did not present any statistics to evaluate effect sizes for these differences.

Discussion
Luera and Otto’s analysis was a longitudinal view of how changes in teaching methodology in an elementary science teacher program affect pre-service teacher outcomes. The revised science content courses used guided inquiry, student engagement, student exploration, student explanation of content and expansion on initial inquiry. Engaging students in inquiry-based content programs and using action research pedagogy to build content knowledge was successful. Increasing teacher efficacy through inquiry-based pedagogy had a positive effect on the university students’ outcomes. The authors presented a strong program model that appeared to have a positive impact in the creation of pre-service teachers developing science content knowledge in an integrated reflective practice.

The limitation of the study was the scope of the sample population. Although the size (n=248) appears to be sufficient, this analysis was limited to one program at one university. Leura and Otto clearly identified the other limitation of identifying precise aspects of the inquiry courses that affect efficacy and content knowledge uniquely.

Critique
Luera and Otto presented strong justification for pedagogical and methodological changes to create an inquiry-based elementary science teacher education program. The overall value of this study lies within the broad implication that systemic change can be made in institutes of higher education. The study suggests that developing proactive processes using research based theories gives potential solutions to increasing teacher effectiveness and outcomes. The literature review served as a broad base touching on constructivist teaching theory with an emphasis on inquiry-based pedagogy.

The study has several limitations. Luera and Otto discussed intentions to develop additional measures for teacher efficacy because of the STEBI’s narrow scope. It did not appear to have been done, although they mentioned it for future research possibilities. The authors spoke to the fidelity of implementing inquiry-based courses by university faculty members and found some inconsistencies. They acknowledged this as a problem with the study, noting that it raised multiple questions on faculty performance, influence on how courses were taught, and questioned its effect on the outcomes presented in teacher efficacy. Replication of this study or generalization of results would be difficult based on insufficient information on fidelity of practice across courses offered in the program.

The researchers’ use of quantitative methodology served the subsequent analysis of data well. The resulting descriptive and inferential statistics gave credible to the variables of teacher efficacy and beliefs. The study would have been more notable if Luera and Otto had integrated components of qualitative research to elaborate on those two variables. As they were strong proponents of inquiry-based teaching practices, the use of descriptive text and appreciative inquiry would have amplified the voice of learner-as-participant.


Theoretical, Methodological, and Practical Conclusions
Constructivist and social cognitive theory served as a basis for Luera and Otto’s study. Based on their analysis of university students learning outcomes resulting in the infusion of inquiry-based methodology courses, reforms called for in teacher education programs appear to be appropriate. The infusion of inquiry-based learning practices in teacher education programs does result in increased student knowledge and efficacy outcomes. The challenge for Luera and Otto was to find appropriate assessment instruments to provide appropriate data for variables on efficacy.

Luera and Otto’s analysis provided future research possibilities surrounding concepts of change within teacher education institutions. The longitudinal nature of the analysis provided insight into long-term effects of program element change, resistance to change within individual faculty members to using research-driven pedagogy such as inquiry based teaching and how changes within the university’s program actually created change in the field of in-service elementary science.

The practical implications emerging from the analysis of the program at the university discussed by the authors were applicable to not only the elementary science teacher programs; it had bearing on systemic change in higher education. Luera and Otto discussed how similar program changes might be generalized to the community college settings that often serve as pipelines into programs for universities. In that way, pre-service science teachers are provided a seamless transition into the university program. The resulting collaboration between institutions might result in higher quality science teachers.

Leura and Otto’s study appears to support the reform movement set in motion by the National Science Education Standards. Inquiry-based pedagogy and teaching practices within science content had a positive impact on knowledge and efficacy outcomes of pre-service science teachers.