Sunday, August 14, 2011
Saturday, May 2, 2009
Audiobook
The Constructivist group Audiobook presents a brief overview of constructivism with an in-depth review of the use of Inquiry-based Learning in the classroom. A concept map of Constructivism illustrating its three major instructional strategies:Inquiry-based learning, project based learning and service learning is included in the presentation.
constructivist audiobook download
constructivist audiobook download
Bibliography
Constructivism is not only a psychological construct, but also a philosophical perspective. It explains the nature of learning in which we as learners build (create) our own learning through discovery and verification. Constructivism covers a vast array body of knowledge. This bibliography focuses on Inquiry-based learning and teaching. Some of the references provide a base on which to build, some reflect specific interests in Higher Education and teacher training, special education, mathematics and science methodologies. The remainder of the references are either theory-to-practice topics or background.
Implications
This is a short introduction describing the Constructivist group's implications of constructivism and Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) theory for instructional practice.
There are many implications for improving instructional practices through the constructivist approach and more specifically the use of Inquiry Based Learning (IBL). The major implication that our research cited was the improvement in student motivation, student achievement, student engagement and an increase in literacy and technology skills. There are also implications for improving how students are assessed.
In the classroom, IBL provides a dynamic approach to teaching. It is a technique that allows a teacher the opportunity to assist students in building their own knowledge. It also requires a student to develop self-regulation skills as they explore a topic and attempt to make sense of the data and information gathered. It is an inductive approach that enables the teacher to act as a facilitator to the acquisition of knowledge. In doing so, students become active and motivated learners. This is perhaps the greatest implication for instruction because when students are motivated they will take responsibility for their own learning and learning becomes more relevant. Our research concluded that when students are part of a well organized and constructed IBL setting, students’ achievement, processing skills, analytic abilities, critical thinking, and creativity show an increase. Research also shows that when students are motivated they are more likely to participate in learning activities. In a student-centered classroom in which students have shared responsibility, they are more likely to be engaged in their learning.
The implications for developing technology and literacy skills in an IBL setting are considerable. Students with varied abilities and knowledge of technology can expand their skills when operating in an environment that will allow them to explore the technology as they learn to access information and problem solve. This approach will require students to expand their reading skills by reviewing different types of texts and making determinations about the importance and relevance of what they read.
Another important implication for the use of IBL relates to assessment. Today’s students arrive with different learning styles and strengths. An IBL classroom allows for varied approaches to assessing students’ understanding of what is being taught. A thoughtful and well organized teacher can construct a classroom that can use portfolios, journals, notes, projects, or group presentations to gain insights into what students know and can do.
There are many implications for improving instructional practices through the constructivist approach and more specifically the use of Inquiry Based Learning (IBL). The major implication that our research cited was the improvement in student motivation, student achievement, student engagement and an increase in literacy and technology skills. There are also implications for improving how students are assessed.
In the classroom, IBL provides a dynamic approach to teaching. It is a technique that allows a teacher the opportunity to assist students in building their own knowledge. It also requires a student to develop self-regulation skills as they explore a topic and attempt to make sense of the data and information gathered. It is an inductive approach that enables the teacher to act as a facilitator to the acquisition of knowledge. In doing so, students become active and motivated learners. This is perhaps the greatest implication for instruction because when students are motivated they will take responsibility for their own learning and learning becomes more relevant. Our research concluded that when students are part of a well organized and constructed IBL setting, students’ achievement, processing skills, analytic abilities, critical thinking, and creativity show an increase. Research also shows that when students are motivated they are more likely to participate in learning activities. In a student-centered classroom in which students have shared responsibility, they are more likely to be engaged in their learning.
The implications for developing technology and literacy skills in an IBL setting are considerable. Students with varied abilities and knowledge of technology can expand their skills when operating in an environment that will allow them to explore the technology as they learn to access information and problem solve. This approach will require students to expand their reading skills by reviewing different types of texts and making determinations about the importance and relevance of what they read.
Another important implication for the use of IBL relates to assessment. Today’s students arrive with different learning styles and strengths. An IBL classroom allows for varied approaches to assessing students’ understanding of what is being taught. A thoughtful and well organized teacher can construct a classroom that can use portfolios, journals, notes, projects, or group presentations to gain insights into what students know and can do.
Selection
The collection of articles and books selected for Constructivism and Inquiry-based learning theory were chosen as a result of the individual and collective interests of the members of the group. Each member of our research group brought with them some very unique interests, backgrounds and personal lens to the project. One is a special educator in the K-12 setting, teaching students with hearing loss and deafness. Another works within the field of teacher education at a university. And the third member of our group works as a principal. All three of us come from a special education background as teachers.
Much of the research that we chose to focus on were studies that focused on classroom based strategies or applications of inquiry based teaching practices at the teacher education level in universities. After delving into the topic, we found that much of the research material centered around either science or math content, teaching practice and impact on learning student outcomes. As a result, many of the articles discuss Inquiry-based learning embedded within those two content areas. Computer-based instruction and computer technology has become a topic of research in the area of inquiry-based theory. With the evolution of the technology and use in the classroom, we felt it was important to include two article reviews.
Constructivist learning theory promotes learning experiences by providing an environment that is learner centered, and in that way, takes into account the learner’s individual needs. Individuals with different backgrounds, cultural experiences, language bases often struggle to find common ground or background during a learning event. Tapping into their backgrounds and layering upon that framework of critical questions, learners can then actively participate and ultimately take responsibility for their own learning. This model is far different that the prescriptive method of teaching/learning that has been criticized especially in the disciplines of science and mathematics in the last several decades. Scruggs, et al. study examined textbook learning versus Inquiry-based learning in the special education classroom. The article offers a solid background review of activity based instruction in science and its positive impact on student outcomes. It offers a starting point to gain insight into instructional practices making content accessible to students with learning disabilities.
Luera and Otto’s 2005 study examined Inquiry-based learning/teaching theory at the higher education level. This article offers information on matching teacher preparation pedagogy with the National Science Education Standards in order to create reforms in higher education. This article is an analysis of bringing practical, hand-on pedagogy to those who will be in the classrooms. Systemic changed is possible and takes time. These researchers are presenting an interesting case for change because it will ultimately effect students’ learning outcomes.
Freppon and McIntyre’s 1999 article was of interesting because it dealt with constructivist versus traditional teaching methodologies in reading. Typically, the research has compared math or science content when looking at inquiry-based learning and this put a refreshing view on the theory. Chung’s research presented results in which there was not a statistically significant difference in scores between students learning multiplication in the traditional or constructivist classrooms. Although, the overall gain for the constructivist group was significant. This is interesting because it is not an outright commercial for constructivism but laud that there is a lot of potential for the practice when the teacher has become comfortable constructivist-based teaching methodology in a third grade classroom.
Ikpeze and Boyd conducted a study to establish the benefits of using WebQuests as a tool to improve both student literacy and a student’s ability to navigate the Internet and other information communication technologies (ICT’s). We chose this article because it addressed the issue of literacy which is pivotal when preparing to use Inquiry Based learning as an instructional tool. The study also investigates the impact of computer literacy on IBL.
Wecker, Kohnlet, and Fischer' study examined the relationship between a student’s level of computer literacy and their success in acquiring knowledge in a computer assisted IBL environment. We chose the Wecker article because we felt it addressed the technology aspect of our group’s topic, Inquiry Based Learning (IBL).
Much of the research that we chose to focus on were studies that focused on classroom based strategies or applications of inquiry based teaching practices at the teacher education level in universities. After delving into the topic, we found that much of the research material centered around either science or math content, teaching practice and impact on learning student outcomes. As a result, many of the articles discuss Inquiry-based learning embedded within those two content areas. Computer-based instruction and computer technology has become a topic of research in the area of inquiry-based theory. With the evolution of the technology and use in the classroom, we felt it was important to include two article reviews.
Constructivist learning theory promotes learning experiences by providing an environment that is learner centered, and in that way, takes into account the learner’s individual needs. Individuals with different backgrounds, cultural experiences, language bases often struggle to find common ground or background during a learning event. Tapping into their backgrounds and layering upon that framework of critical questions, learners can then actively participate and ultimately take responsibility for their own learning. This model is far different that the prescriptive method of teaching/learning that has been criticized especially in the disciplines of science and mathematics in the last several decades. Scruggs, et al. study examined textbook learning versus Inquiry-based learning in the special education classroom. The article offers a solid background review of activity based instruction in science and its positive impact on student outcomes. It offers a starting point to gain insight into instructional practices making content accessible to students with learning disabilities.
Luera and Otto’s 2005 study examined Inquiry-based learning/teaching theory at the higher education level. This article offers information on matching teacher preparation pedagogy with the National Science Education Standards in order to create reforms in higher education. This article is an analysis of bringing practical, hand-on pedagogy to those who will be in the classrooms. Systemic changed is possible and takes time. These researchers are presenting an interesting case for change because it will ultimately effect students’ learning outcomes.
Freppon and McIntyre’s 1999 article was of interesting because it dealt with constructivist versus traditional teaching methodologies in reading. Typically, the research has compared math or science content when looking at inquiry-based learning and this put a refreshing view on the theory. Chung’s research presented results in which there was not a statistically significant difference in scores between students learning multiplication in the traditional or constructivist classrooms. Although, the overall gain for the constructivist group was significant. This is interesting because it is not an outright commercial for constructivism but laud that there is a lot of potential for the practice when the teacher has become comfortable constructivist-based teaching methodology in a third grade classroom.
Ikpeze and Boyd conducted a study to establish the benefits of using WebQuests as a tool to improve both student literacy and a student’s ability to navigate the Internet and other information communication technologies (ICT’s). We chose this article because it addressed the issue of literacy which is pivotal when preparing to use Inquiry Based learning as an instructional tool. The study also investigates the impact of computer literacy on IBL.
Wecker, Kohnlet, and Fischer' study examined the relationship between a student’s level of computer literacy and their success in acquiring knowledge in a computer assisted IBL environment. We chose the Wecker article because we felt it addressed the technology aspect of our group’s topic, Inquiry Based Learning (IBL).
Ikpeze et al. (2007)
Ikpeze, C.H.,& Boyde, F.B. (2007). Web-based inquiry learning: Facilitating thoughtful literacy with WebQuests. The Reading Teacher, 60(7). 644-654.
Purpose/Problem
Purpose/Problem
Ipeze and Boyd conducted a study to establish the benefits of using WebQuests as a tool to improve both student literacy and a student’s ability to navigate the Internet and other information communication technologies (ICT’s). I chose this article because it addressed the issue of literacy which is pivotal when preparing to use Inquiry Based Learning (IBL) as an instructional tool.
The goal of the study is to demonstrate how to integrate and use multiple tasks during WebQuests to facilitate thoughtful literacy. The study also investigates the impact of computer literacy on IBL. The authors cited the need for teachers to design instruction that requires students to activate prior knowledge, interact with peers about issues raised in the text they read, and to apply what they read to the world around them.
The findings from the study suggest that WebQuests can lead students towards thoughtful literacy when properly designed. The study also produced evidence that student engagement and motivation increased. Although this was not an in-depth study and strong statistical data is lacking, it did establish some solid connections between the activities used in the study and the improving literacy of the subjects.
Methods
The goal of the study is to demonstrate how to integrate and use multiple tasks during WebQuests to facilitate thoughtful literacy. The study also investigates the impact of computer literacy on IBL. The authors cited the need for teachers to design instruction that requires students to activate prior knowledge, interact with peers about issues raised in the text they read, and to apply what they read to the world around them.
The findings from the study suggest that WebQuests can lead students towards thoughtful literacy when properly designed. The study also produced evidence that student engagement and motivation increased. Although this was not an in-depth study and strong statistical data is lacking, it did establish some solid connections between the activities used in the study and the improving literacy of the subjects.
Methods
The participants in the study were six fifth grade students who were considered to be average or above average students by their teachers. Half of the students were eligible for free or reduced lunch. The study was conducted over a ten week instructional unit that was interdisciplinary including the subjects of social studies, language arts, and science. After considering the interests of the subjects the topic of environmental protection was decided upon as a theme. The students were presented with three guiding questions:
1. What choices can I make to protect the environment?
2. What choice can I make that would harm the environment?
3. Why is environmental protection important?
The introductory lessons included brainstorming to activate prior knowledge and to allow students to better understand the purpose of the project. A five to ten minute mini-lesson on internet search strategies and how to search and scan information was provided. Subjects then participated in a variety of instructional activities. One was a role-play activity. Each student was assigned a role of manufacturer, homeowner, teacher or consumer. In their roles they investigated environmental problem from the perspective of their role. Two interactive multi-media software packages were also used. “Recycle City” provided information about different city agencies and facilities and what they do to protect the environment. “Dumptown” is a simulation designed to help students think critically about different environmental programs. A poetry unit that required students to listen to and write poetry related to the environment was included. Units on critical reading and on making connections between what is read and the real world were presented as well.
Results
The results reported from the study were mainly anecdotal. The data collected included observation reports, field notes, written artifacts, evaluation rubrics, and reflective journals. Audio tapes of interviews, classroom interactions and discussions were also used. Data collection and analysis were done using the action research paradigm. The paradigm gave the authors the opportunity to plan, observe, generate, and evaluate new understanding about teaching and learning in a web-based environment. The findings from the study suggest that WebQuests can facilitate thoughtful literacy when tasks are carefully selected, organized, and delivered. Ikpeze and Boyd found that this approach to instruction will also increase student motivation and engagement, in addition to helping to build research and reading skills. From the activities that the subjects participated in, a number of different conclusions were drawn from student performance on each task. For example, the role play activity allowed students to see other points of view and provided them the opportunity to gather, summarize, synthesize, and evaluate information. It also allowed students to make real life connections to the needs of their community, even though learning to cooperate and work together for a common goal was difficult for them at times. The poetry lesson introduced a new genre by which students could communicate their research. The results show that, although they enjoyed reading and listening to poetry, they had difficulty actually writing poems. The multi-media software presented challenges in that it required students to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate the situation being simulated for students. However, the participants did demonstrate divergent thinking and decision making skills as they played. When involved in the critical reading assignments, students demonstrated good skills in being able to evaluate web sites to determine validity of the information given. They were equally skilled at critiquing mass advertising and detecting propaganda.
Discussion
The main purpose of the study was to establish the value of using WebQuests as a tool for interdisciplinary instruction. The study also set out to corroborate the need for understanding multiple knowledge representations. While results of the study did not present conclusive evidence, it did present a thorough investigation into one approach of using a WebQuest with elementary age students. It also provided insights into the activities that students were assigned and which ones students had more success with and which ones presented greater challenges. Throughout the activities students were given choices to demonstrate the motivation factor and students willingness to participate when their interests are given priority. The authors emphasized that WebQuests that include scaffolding, graphic organizers, and multi-media can lead to student success. However, navigational disorientation, information overload, and distraction were all cited as impediments to learning with the internet.
Critique
The small sample size and lack of statistical data are obvious drawbacks in trying to make broad conclusions based on this study. However, the small sample size did allow for analysis of individual subjects which included recordings of their responses and interactions with each other. It also allowed for discussion about individual subjects when one was performing at a high level than another and to analyze why and what could be done to alter the assignment for a greater degree of success across subjects. The fact that there was not a pre and post-test included in the study was disappointing. I would have been interested in student growth over the ten weeks. Although strong motivation and engagement is reported, it is not measure. The study does lay ground for further studies to confirm the value of WebQuests as an instructional strategy.
Another strength of the article from a cognitive psychology perspective is the reference to many instructional approaches related to cognitive psychology. Information overload is addressed throughout the article, and instructional strategies that address cognitive load strategies such as multi-media, scaffolding, and graphic organizers are highlighted.
Chung (2004)
Chung, I. (2004). A comparative assessment of constructivist and traditionalist approaches to establishing mathematical connections in learning multiplication. Education, 125(2), 271-278
Introduction
In the context of third graders learning multiplication, Chung’s quantitative study assesses the effectiveness of traditional and constructivist teaching methods. This study was chosen because it represented a simple qualitative analysis of the two theoretical models in practice, with a focus on the positive and negative aspects of applying constructivism to a classroom. This article selection may be deemed an odd choice based on the article’s findings that there were no statistically significant differences between the traditional versus the constructivist teaching methods; however the choice was strategic. Coming from the paradigm that there is value in triangulation as well as error, we as researchers can learn more about constructivism by examining its strengths and weaknesses as a means of delivering instruction.
The Study
Chung’s rational for the study is the incongruence between the call to reform mathematics education into meaningful, constructivist-based learning experiences, and the traditional teaching approach teachers take. Chung felt that a comparative, quantitative study was needed to provide hard data in support of Constructivism in order for teachers to incorporate the methodologies into their instruction. Thus, the researcher predicted that the outcome of the study would show that constructivist teaching methods were effective. The study was based on previous research that found that teachers do not necessarily teach using constructivist or traditional teaching methods, but instead teach students using the methods that they were taught with themselves. Other research used as a basis for this study sited the need for a “broad approach” to mathematics teaching is needed in order to promote meaningful learning.
Purpose
The purpose of the study was to assess third grade students conceptual development, acquisition and retention of multiplication skills in two instructional contexts; traditional and constructive. Chung defined constructivism as a way of teaching students to choose learning tasks that link to prior knowledge and allow students to “build mathematical connections through active learning using concrete materials.” Chung does not define “traditional” teaching methods, although it is presumed to be text-book based learning and rote assessment.
Methods
The student participants were 71 third-grade students ranging in age from eight to ten years old. The students were from four different classrooms in two public schools in one school district. Participant schools were mostly comprised of students from middle to low socio-economic status.
The four classrooms were divided into two groups; each group was made up of two intact classrooms. One group was taught using the constructivist approach, and the other was taught using traditional methods. Both the constructivist and traditional groups received 10 lessons, which were 30-40 minutes in length. The traditional group received lessons that were based off of the districts adopted 3rd grade mathematics curriculum. One of the traditional classrooms was taught by the classroom teacher and the other was taught by the researcher. The constructivist group’s lessons were developed by the researcher and the classroom teacher, and were designed based on constructivist theory. Both the researcher and the constructivist classroom teacher had backgrounds in constructivist teaching methods. One of the constructivist classes was taught by the regular classroom teacher and the other was taught by the researcher.
Data was collected through a 2 x 2 factorial, pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design. There were three tests that were used in the analysis of the data: the Forth Edition Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test, the Revised KeyMath Diagnostic Inventory, and a Researcher made test composed of 10 open ended questions. All three of the tests were administered to each student participant both before and after the lesson. Data was analyzed using Analysis of Variance with a probability level of less that 0.05. The survey developed by the researcher was scored using a scoring rubric developed by the researcher.
Results
Chung’s most noteworthy finding was that no one methodology was significantly better than the other. There were no differences (p>0.05) between the mean scores of the three assessments for traditional vs. constructivist instructional groups. However, there were gains in the pretest posttest scores for both the constructivist group before the lessons vs. after the lessons demonstrating that students from both approaches improved their multiplication skills.
Discussion
Although there were no significant differences in performance between the traditional and constructivist instructional groups on the three assessment tools, Chung still believed that the research findings contribute to our understanding of how children learn as well as how to teach mathematics. Most notably, Chung stated that the findings support the use of constructivist methods.
A previous study sited by Chung reported that constructivist teaching methods were avoided by instructors because of the significant amount of class time required for a lesson paired with minimal student gain. Additionally, one of the teachers that participated in the study felt that when constructivist instructional methods were used it was difficult to control the classroom compared to a traditional approach. Because of the change in routine and the novel use of manipulatives, the teacher reported that students had higher energy levels and classroom management was challenging. Despite these criticisms, Chung maintained that the fact that the constructivist methods had a similar effect to that of traditional methods demonstrates that it is an effective instructional methodology. After only ten constructivist lessons the constructivist group had statistically improved mean scores on all three assessments. This success is also demonstrated through student’s improved pretest and posttest scores in spite of the fact that the students were not accustomed to that approach to teaching. Thus, if “using concrete materials for only 10 lessons demonstrated increased scores, what could gains be for these same students in this learning environment with their regular teacher using manipulatives for the entire school year?”
Chung details that the present study had limitations as well as implications for future research. Training in constructivist teaching could have increased the teacher’s confidence in utilizing the methodology. Chung also recommends videotaping lessons so that confounding and irrelevant variables that are difficult to observe in the busy classroom setting can be controlled. The validity of the study could be improved with an increase from 10 to 25 lessons as well as an increased sample size. It was also recommended that the teachers utilizing the constructivist methodologies have training prior to teaching the lesson in how to use the instructional materials.
Critique
Strengths of this research include the simple and succinct design as well as compelling findings. However, the major issue with the research was the omission of details, leaving the reader guessing on several of the procedures. This was particularly evident in the methods section, which lacked in necessary detail. First, it is unclear how the participant district, classroom and students were selected to participate in the study. Additionally, the researcher neglected to give needed specifics about how the traditional and constructivist classes were taught. For example, it is unclear if the teacher and the researcher consistently taught their own respective classes or if they alternated. Some aspects of the methodology could have impacted the study outcomes. One example of this is if the students were accustomed to a particular instructional style, a change of instructor -such as the researcher conducting a lesson as opposed to their regular classroom teacher- could have impacted student performance. Teacher and researcher training also could have impacted the student’s performance. If the teacher was used to implementing more traditional teaching methods during instruction, changing to constructivist methods could be awkward and difficult. It is also unclear if the researcher had any previous teaching experience. In regards to the assessments used one criticism is that although two of the tests were preexisting, there is little description of how the researcher-made test was developed or if it was field tested. Finally, in the findings section, Chung does not include in the narrative any statistics addressing the improvement within the traditional and constructivist methodologies between pretest and posttest even though this gain was later included as part of the discussion section. Inclusion of this information would have given the reader a more thorough composite of the results.
Conclusions
The theoretical implication of this study is that both traditional and constructivist teaching methods are effective in teaching third graders multiplication. Chung clearly started out the study to prove that constructivist teaching methods are effective, which was done; they were statistically similar in effect to that of traditional teaching methods. However, constructivist teaching practices were not found to be more effective than traditional. Indirect implications for teaching practice based on these findings could be that since the outcome of both constructivist and traditional teaching methods are similar, why would instructors bother to change their teaching style, a way students are accustomed to learning, in order to incorporate constructivist methodology? An answer to is this is in the practical implications for the research. In a classroom context, which typically serves a broad range of students with varied learning styles, practical implications include utilizing both methodologies to enrich student’s comprehension of the subject matter and reach a broader base of learners.
Introduction
In the context of third graders learning multiplication, Chung’s quantitative study assesses the effectiveness of traditional and constructivist teaching methods. This study was chosen because it represented a simple qualitative analysis of the two theoretical models in practice, with a focus on the positive and negative aspects of applying constructivism to a classroom. This article selection may be deemed an odd choice based on the article’s findings that there were no statistically significant differences between the traditional versus the constructivist teaching methods; however the choice was strategic. Coming from the paradigm that there is value in triangulation as well as error, we as researchers can learn more about constructivism by examining its strengths and weaknesses as a means of delivering instruction.
The Study
Chung’s rational for the study is the incongruence between the call to reform mathematics education into meaningful, constructivist-based learning experiences, and the traditional teaching approach teachers take. Chung felt that a comparative, quantitative study was needed to provide hard data in support of Constructivism in order for teachers to incorporate the methodologies into their instruction. Thus, the researcher predicted that the outcome of the study would show that constructivist teaching methods were effective. The study was based on previous research that found that teachers do not necessarily teach using constructivist or traditional teaching methods, but instead teach students using the methods that they were taught with themselves. Other research used as a basis for this study sited the need for a “broad approach” to mathematics teaching is needed in order to promote meaningful learning.
Purpose
The purpose of the study was to assess third grade students conceptual development, acquisition and retention of multiplication skills in two instructional contexts; traditional and constructive. Chung defined constructivism as a way of teaching students to choose learning tasks that link to prior knowledge and allow students to “build mathematical connections through active learning using concrete materials.” Chung does not define “traditional” teaching methods, although it is presumed to be text-book based learning and rote assessment.
Methods
The student participants were 71 third-grade students ranging in age from eight to ten years old. The students were from four different classrooms in two public schools in one school district. Participant schools were mostly comprised of students from middle to low socio-economic status.
The four classrooms were divided into two groups; each group was made up of two intact classrooms. One group was taught using the constructivist approach, and the other was taught using traditional methods. Both the constructivist and traditional groups received 10 lessons, which were 30-40 minutes in length. The traditional group received lessons that were based off of the districts adopted 3rd grade mathematics curriculum. One of the traditional classrooms was taught by the classroom teacher and the other was taught by the researcher. The constructivist group’s lessons were developed by the researcher and the classroom teacher, and were designed based on constructivist theory. Both the researcher and the constructivist classroom teacher had backgrounds in constructivist teaching methods. One of the constructivist classes was taught by the regular classroom teacher and the other was taught by the researcher.
Data was collected through a 2 x 2 factorial, pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design. There were three tests that were used in the analysis of the data: the Forth Edition Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test, the Revised KeyMath Diagnostic Inventory, and a Researcher made test composed of 10 open ended questions. All three of the tests were administered to each student participant both before and after the lesson. Data was analyzed using Analysis of Variance with a probability level of less that 0.05. The survey developed by the researcher was scored using a scoring rubric developed by the researcher.
Results
Chung’s most noteworthy finding was that no one methodology was significantly better than the other. There were no differences (p>0.05) between the mean scores of the three assessments for traditional vs. constructivist instructional groups. However, there were gains in the pretest posttest scores for both the constructivist group before the lessons vs. after the lessons demonstrating that students from both approaches improved their multiplication skills.
Discussion
Although there were no significant differences in performance between the traditional and constructivist instructional groups on the three assessment tools, Chung still believed that the research findings contribute to our understanding of how children learn as well as how to teach mathematics. Most notably, Chung stated that the findings support the use of constructivist methods.
A previous study sited by Chung reported that constructivist teaching methods were avoided by instructors because of the significant amount of class time required for a lesson paired with minimal student gain. Additionally, one of the teachers that participated in the study felt that when constructivist instructional methods were used it was difficult to control the classroom compared to a traditional approach. Because of the change in routine and the novel use of manipulatives, the teacher reported that students had higher energy levels and classroom management was challenging. Despite these criticisms, Chung maintained that the fact that the constructivist methods had a similar effect to that of traditional methods demonstrates that it is an effective instructional methodology. After only ten constructivist lessons the constructivist group had statistically improved mean scores on all three assessments. This success is also demonstrated through student’s improved pretest and posttest scores in spite of the fact that the students were not accustomed to that approach to teaching. Thus, if “using concrete materials for only 10 lessons demonstrated increased scores, what could gains be for these same students in this learning environment with their regular teacher using manipulatives for the entire school year?”
Chung details that the present study had limitations as well as implications for future research. Training in constructivist teaching could have increased the teacher’s confidence in utilizing the methodology. Chung also recommends videotaping lessons so that confounding and irrelevant variables that are difficult to observe in the busy classroom setting can be controlled. The validity of the study could be improved with an increase from 10 to 25 lessons as well as an increased sample size. It was also recommended that the teachers utilizing the constructivist methodologies have training prior to teaching the lesson in how to use the instructional materials.
Critique
Strengths of this research include the simple and succinct design as well as compelling findings. However, the major issue with the research was the omission of details, leaving the reader guessing on several of the procedures. This was particularly evident in the methods section, which lacked in necessary detail. First, it is unclear how the participant district, classroom and students were selected to participate in the study. Additionally, the researcher neglected to give needed specifics about how the traditional and constructivist classes were taught. For example, it is unclear if the teacher and the researcher consistently taught their own respective classes or if they alternated. Some aspects of the methodology could have impacted the study outcomes. One example of this is if the students were accustomed to a particular instructional style, a change of instructor -such as the researcher conducting a lesson as opposed to their regular classroom teacher- could have impacted student performance. Teacher and researcher training also could have impacted the student’s performance. If the teacher was used to implementing more traditional teaching methods during instruction, changing to constructivist methods could be awkward and difficult. It is also unclear if the researcher had any previous teaching experience. In regards to the assessments used one criticism is that although two of the tests were preexisting, there is little description of how the researcher-made test was developed or if it was field tested. Finally, in the findings section, Chung does not include in the narrative any statistics addressing the improvement within the traditional and constructivist methodologies between pretest and posttest even though this gain was later included as part of the discussion section. Inclusion of this information would have given the reader a more thorough composite of the results.
Conclusions
The theoretical implication of this study is that both traditional and constructivist teaching methods are effective in teaching third graders multiplication. Chung clearly started out the study to prove that constructivist teaching methods are effective, which was done; they were statistically similar in effect to that of traditional teaching methods. However, constructivist teaching practices were not found to be more effective than traditional. Indirect implications for teaching practice based on these findings could be that since the outcome of both constructivist and traditional teaching methods are similar, why would instructors bother to change their teaching style, a way students are accustomed to learning, in order to incorporate constructivist methodology? An answer to is this is in the practical implications for the research. In a classroom context, which typically serves a broad range of students with varied learning styles, practical implications include utilizing both methodologies to enrich student’s comprehension of the subject matter and reach a broader base of learners.
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